Adams J & Berg JK. 1980. Behavior of female African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in captivity. Appl. Anim. Ethol. 6: 267-276. Abstract.
Balfour D & Balfour S 1997. African Elephants: A Celebration of Majesty. Cape Town: Struik Publishers. 168 p.
Bates LA Sayialel K Njiraini N Moss CJ Poole JH Byrne RW. 2007. Elephants classify human ethnic groups by odor and garment color. Current Biology 17:1938–42.
Bates LA Lee PC Njiraini N Poole JH Sayialel K Sayialel S Moss CJ & Byrne RW. 2008. Do elephants show empathy? Journal of Consciousness Studies, 15: 204-225.
Bates LA Handford R Lee PC Njiraini N Poole JH Sayialel K Sayialel S Moss CJ & Byrne RW. 2010. Why do African elephants (Loxodonta africana) simulate oestrus? An analysis of longitudinal data. PLoS-ONE, e10052.
Ben-Shahar R. 1999. On the Trail of the Wild. Cologne, Germany: Könemann. 320 p.
Bere R. 1966. The African elephant. Golden Press, New York.
Berg JK. 1983. Vocalizations and associated behaviours of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in captivity. Z. Tierpsychol 63:63-79.
Bolgan M O’Brien JM Gammell M. 2015. The behavioural repertoire of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus (L.)) in captivity: a case study for testing ethogram completeness and reducing observer effects. In: Ecology of Freshwater Fish. John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1111/eff.12212
Browne-Nuñez C. 2011. The Maasai-Elephant Relationship: The Evolution and Influence of Culture, Land Use, and Attitudes. In: The Amboseli Elephants: A long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. Eds. Moss CJ Croze HJ & Lee PC. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Buss IO & Estes JA. 1971. The functional significance of the movements and position of the pinnae of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana. J Mammal52 (1): 21-27.
Buss IO Rasmussen LE Smuts GL. 1976. The role of stress and individual recognition in the function of the African elephant’s temporal gland. Mammalia 40: 437-451.
Chiyo PI Moss CJ Archie EA Hollister‐Smith JA Alberts SC. 2011a. Using molecular and observational techniques to estimate the number and raiding patterns of crop‐raiding elephants. Journal of Applied Ecology. 48(3): 788-796.
Chiyo PI Lee PC Moss CJ Archie EA Hollister-Smith JA & Alberts SC. 2011b. No risk, no gain: effects of crop raiding and genetic diversity on body size in male elephants. Behavioural Ecology. 22: 552-558.
Croze H Lindsay WK. 2011. Amboseli Ecosystem Context: Past and Present. In: The Amboseli Elephants: A long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. Eds. Moss CJ Croze HJ & Lee PC. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Daniel JC. 1998. The Asian Elephant: a Natural History. Dehra Dun, India: Natraj Publishers. Denhardt et al. 1997.
Daskin JH Stalmans M Pringle RM. 2016. Ecological legacies of civil war: 35‐year increase in savanna tree cover following wholesale large‐mammal declines. Journal of Ecology 104:79-89. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12483
Deraniyagala PEP. 1955. Some Extinct Elephants, Their Relatives and the Two Living Species, Ceylon Museums Publication. Government Press, Ceylon.
Douglas-Hamilton I. 1972. On the Ecology and Behaviour of the African Elephant, D. Phil. Thesis, University of Oxford.
Douglas-Hamilton I & Douglas-Hamilton O. 1975. Among the Elephants. The Viking Press, New York.
Douglas-Hamilton I & Douglas-Hamilton O. 1992. Battle for the Elephants. Doubleday, London.
Douglas-Hamilton I Bhalla S Wittemyer G & Vollrath F. 2006. Behavioural reactions of elephants towards a dying and deceased matriarch. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 100: 87-102.
Eltringham SK. 1982. Elephants. Blandford Press.
Eisenberg JF McKay GM & Jainudeen MR. 1971. Reproductive behaviour of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus L.). Behaviour, 38:193-225.
Eisenberg JF & Lockhart M. 1972. An ecological reconnaissance of Wildpattu National Park. Smithsonian Cont. Zool. 101, p.1-117.
Estes RD. 1991. The Behavior Guide to African Mammals. University of California Press, Los Angeles.
Fishlock V Caldwell C Lee PC. 2015 Elephant resource-use traditions. Animal Cognition Anim Cogn. https://www.doi.org/10.1007/s10071-015-0921-x
Gaynor KM Branco PS Long RA Gonçalves DD Granli PK Poole JH. 2018. Effects of human settlement and roads on diel activity patterns of elephants (Loxodonta africana). Afr J Ecol. 56:872-881. https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12552
Goldenberg SZ & Wittemyer G. 2018. Orphaning and natal group dispersal are associated with social costs in female elephants. Animal Behaviour 143: 1-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.07.002
Goldenberg SZ & Wittemyer G. 2019. Elephant behavior toward the dead: A review and insights from field observations. Primates https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-019-00766-5
Hall-Martin AJ. 1987. Role of musth in the reproductive strategy of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). S. Afr. J. Sci. 83:616-20.
Harthoorn AM. 1970. The flying syringe: ten years of immobilising wild animals in Africa. Geoffrey Bles Ltd, Great Britain.
Heffner RS Heffner HE & Stichman N. 1982. The role of elephant pinna in sound localization. Anim. Behav. 30: 628-629.
Hendrichs H. 1971. Freilandbeobachtungen zum Sozial-system des Africanischen Elephanten, Loxodonta africana. In: Dikdik und Elephanten, Piper, Munich.
Jainudeen MR Eisenberg JF and Tilakeratne N. 1971. Oestrous cycle of the Asiatic Elephant, Elephas maximus, in Captivity. Journal of Reprod. Fert. 27:321-328.
Jainudeen MR McKay GM & Eisenberg JF. 1972. Observations on musth in the domesticated Asiatic elephant. Mammalia 36, p. 247-261.
Kahl MP & Armstrong BD. 2000. Visual and tactile displays in African elephants, Loxodonta africana: A progress report (1991-1997). Elephant 2 (4): p. 19-21.
Kahl MP & Armstrong BD. 2002. Visual displays of wild African elephants during musth. Mammalia 66:159-171.
Kangwana K. The Behavioral Responses of Elephants to the Maasai in Amboseli. 2011. In: The Amboseli Elephants: A long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. Eds. Moss CJ Croze HJ & Lee PC. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Kiambi S Kuloba B Kenana L Muteti D and Mwenda E. 2012. Wet season aerial count of large herbivores in Masai Mara National Reserve and the adjacent community areas. Mara Research Station, Kenya Wildlife Service.
Kühme VW. 1961. Beobachtungen am africanschen Elephanten (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1797) in Gefangenschaft. Z. Tiersychol 18:285-96.
Kühme W. 1963. Ergänzende Beobachtungen an afrikanischen Elephanten (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1797) im Freigehege (2.Teil). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 20(1): 66-79.
Laidre M. 2011. Meaningful gesture in monkeys? Investigating whether Mandrills create social culture. [PLOS ONE https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0014610#s3
Laidre ME, Johnstone RA. 2013. Animal Signals. Current Biology. 23 (18) R829-R833. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982213009317
Langbauer WR Jr. 2000. Elephant Communication. Zoo Biology 19:425-445.
Lee PC. 1986. Early social development among African elephant calves. Natl. Geogr. Res. 2:388-401.
Lee PC. 1987. Allomothering among African elephants. Anim Behav. 35:278-91.
Lee PC & Moss CJ. 1999. The social context for learning and behavioural development among wild African elephants. In: Box, H.O. & Gibson, K.R. (eds) Mammalian Social Learning. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 102-105.
Leong KM Ortolani A Burks KD Mellen JD Savage A. 2003. Quantifying acoustic and temporal characteristics of vocalizations for a group of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Bioacoustics 13:213-231.
Lindsay WK. 1982. Habitat selection and social group dynamics of the Amboseli elephants. MSc thesis, University of British Columbia.
McComb K Moss C Sayialel S & Baker L. 2000. Unusually extensive networks of vocal recognition in African elephants. Anim. Behav. 59:1103-9.
McComb K Moss C Durant S Sayialel S Baker L. 2001. Matriarchs as repositories of social knowledge. Science 292: 491-494.
McComb K Reby D Baker L Moss C Sayialel S. 2003. Long-distance communication of social identity in African elephants. Anim. Behav. 65:317-329.
McComb K Baker L & Moss C. 2006. African elephants show high levels of interest in the skulls and ivory of their own species. Biology Letters 2: 26-28. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0400
McComb K Shannon G Sayialel KN Moss C. 2014. Elephants can determine ethnicity, gender, and age from acoustic cues in human voices. PNAS. https://www.pnas.org/content/111/14/5433.
McKay GM. 1973. Behaviour and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in Southeastern Ceylon. Smithsonian Contr. Zool. 125:1-113.
Mduma H Musyoki C Maliti Kyale D Nindi S Hamza K Ndetei R Machoke M Kimutai D Muteti D Maloba M Bakari S Kohi E. 2014. Aerial total count of elephants and buffaloes in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. TAWIRI, KWS, WWF, FZS and Paul G Allen Foundation, WWF Nairobi.
Merte CE Gough KF Schulte BA. 2008. Investigation of a fresh African elephant carcass by conspecifics. Pachyderm 45:124–126.
Moss CJ. 1981. Social Circles. Wildl. News. 16, 2-7.
Moss CJ. 1982. Portraits in the wild: Behavior studies of East African mammals, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Moss C. 1983. Oestrous behaviour and female choice in the African elephant. Behaviour 86:167-96.
Moss C. 1988. Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant Family. William Morrow, New York.
Moss C. 1992. Echo of the Elephants. BBC Books, London.
Mutinda H Poole JH Moss CJ. 2011. Decision Making and Leadership in Using the Ecosystem. In: The Amboseli Elephants: A long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. Eds. Moss CJ Croze HJ & Lee PC. University of Chicago Press.
O´Connell-Rodwell CE Wood JD Rodwell TC Puria S Partan SR Keefe R Shriver BT & Hart LA. 2006. Wild elephant (Loxodonta africana) breeding herds respond to artificially transmitted seismic stimuli. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 59(6), 842-850.
O'Connell-Rodwell CE Wood JD Kinzley C Rodwell TC Alarcon C Wasser SK Sapolsky R. 2011. Male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) queue when the stakes are high. Ethology Ecology & Evolution, https://doi.org/10.1080/03949370.2011.598569
Pardo MA Poole JH Stoeger AS Wrege PH O’Connell-Rodwell CE Padmalal UK de Silva S. 2019. Differences in combinatorial calls among the three elephant species cannot be explained by phylogeny. Behavioral Ecology. XX(XX), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arz018
Payne K. 1998. Silent thunder: In the presence of elephants. Simon and Schuster, New York.
Payne K. 2003. Sources of Social Complexity in the Three Elephant Species. In: Animal Social Complexity: Intelligence, culture and individualized society. Eds: Frans B.M. de Waal & Peter L. Tyack. Harvard University Press.
Payne K Langbauer WR Jr Thomas EM. 1986. Infrasonic calls of the Asian elephant, Elephas maximus. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology. 18:297-301.
Payne KB Langbauer WR Jr. 1992. Elephant communication. In: Elephants. Ed: Shoshani J. Weldon Owen: San Francisco. P 116-23.
Poole JH. 1982. Musth and male-male competition in the African elephant. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Cambridge.
Poole JH. 1987a. Rutting behavior in African elephants: the phenomenon of musth. Behaviour. 102: 283- 316.
Poole JH. 1987b. Elephants in musth, lust. Natural History. 96 (11): 46-55.
Poole JH. 1987c. Raging Bulls. Animal Kingdom 90 (6): 18-25.
Poole JH. 1989a. Announcing intent: the aggressive state of musth in African elephants. Anim. Behav. 37: 140-152.
Poole JH. 1989b. Mate guarding, reproductive success and female choice in African elephants. Anim. Behav. 37: 842-849.
Poole JH. 1994. Sex differences in the behaviour of African elephants. In: Short, R. and Lynch, P. (ed.) The Differences Between the Sexes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 331-346.
Poole JH. 1996. Coming of Age with Elephants. Hyperion Press, New York.
Poole J 1997. Elephants. WorldLife Library, Colin Baxter Photography Ltd., Scotland.
Poole JH. 1998. An exploration of a commonality between ourselves and elephants. Special Issue Etica & Animali. 9:85-110.
Poole JH. 1999a. Signals and Assessment in African Elephants: Evidence from playback experiments. Animal Behaviour, 58:185-193.
Poole JH. 1999c. Ella's Easter Baby. Care for the Wild Magazine.
Poole JH. 2000a. Family reunions. In: The Smile of the Dolphin: Remarkable Accounts of Animal Emotions, edited by Marc Bekoff. Discovery Books, New York.
Poole JH. 2000b. When bonds are broken. In The smile of the dolphin: Remarkable accounts of animal emotions, ed. M. Bekoff, 142–43. New York: Discovery Books.
Poole JH. 2011. Behavioural contexts of vocal communication of African savanna elephants. In: The Amboseli Elephants: A long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. Eds. Moss CJ Croze HJ & Lee PC. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Poole JH Granli PK. 2003. ElephantVoices Elephant Gestures Database. Available at: www.elephantvoices.org. [Replaced by The Elephant Ethogram]
Poole JH Granli PK. 2004. The visual, tactile and acoustic signals of play in African savannah elephants. In Jayewardene J (ed.), Endangered elephants, past, present and future: Proceedings of the symposium on human elephant relationships and conflicts, Sri Lanka, September 2003 (pp. 44-50). Colombo: Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust.
Poole JH Granli PK. 2011. Signals, gestures and behaviors of African elephants. In: The Amboseli Elephants: A long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. Eds. Moss CJ Croze HJ & Lee PC. University of Chicago Press.
Poole JH Granli P. 2013. Gorongosa Elephant Study ElephantVoices Field Trip Report to the Gorongosa Restoration Project. pp. 1-14.
Poole JH Granli P. 2017. ElephantVoices 2016 Report to the Gorongosa Restoration Project. pp. 1–21.
Poole JH Granli P. 2018. ElephantVoices 2017 Report to the Gorongosa Restoration Project. pp. 1-18.
Poole JH Granli PK. 2021. The Elephant Ethogram: A Library of African Elephant Behavior. https://www.elephantvoices.org/elephant-ethogram.html.
Poole J Okita-Ouma B Granli P Kimanzi D Goss M Tiller L Kiambi S Douglas-Hamilton I. 2016. Mara ecosystem connectivity: Information on elephant population status and movements for spatial planning and conservation in Narok County. pp. 1-28.
Poole JH Moss CJ. 1981. Musth in the African elephant, Loxodonta africana. Nature, 292:830-831.
Poole JH Moss CJ. 1989. Elephant mate searching: Group dynamics and vocal and olfactory communication. In The biology of large African mammals in their environment, ed. P. A. Jewell and G. M. O. Maloiy, 111–25. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Poole JH Moss CJ. 2008. Elephant sociality and complexity: The scientific evidence. In: Elephants and Ethics: Toward a morality of Co-existence. C. Wemmer & K. Christen (Eds.). Johns Hopkins University Press.
Poole JH Payne KB Langbauer WR Jr Moss CJ. 1988. The social contexts of some very low frequency calls of African elephants. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 22:385–92.
Poole JH Tyack PL Stoeger-Horwath AS Watwood S. 2005. Elephants are capable of vocal learning. Nature 434:455–56.
Pratt DJ Greenway PJ Gwynne MD. 1966. A classification of East African rangeland, with an appendix on terminology. Journal of Applied Ecology 3:369–82.
Ramey EA, Ramey RR, Brown LM. 2013. Desert-dwelling African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Namibia dig wells to purify drinking water. Pachyderm No. 53: 66-72.
Rasmussen LEL Schmidt MJ Henneous R Groves D Daves GD. 1982. Asian bull elephants: flehmen-like responses to extractable components in female elephant estrous urine. Science 217:159-162.
Rasmussen LEL. 1988. Chemosensory responses in two species of elephants to constituents of temporal gland secretion and musth urine. J. Chem. Ecol. 16:687-711.
Rasmussen LEL. 1998. Chemical Communication: An integral part of functional Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) society. Ecoscience: 5(3): 410-426.
Rasmussen LEL Schulte BA. 1998. Chemical signals in the reproduction of Asian (Elephas maximus) and Africana (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Animal Reproduction Science 53:19-34.
Rasmussen LEL Krishnamurthy V. 2000. How chemical signals integrate Asian elephant society: he known and the unknown. Zoo Biology. 19:405-423.
Rasmussen LEL Wittemyer G. 2002. Chemosignaling of musth by individual wild African elephants (Loxodonta africana): implications for conservation and management. Proc. Royal. Soc. London. 269:853-860.
Rossman ZT Padfield C Young D Hart BL and Hart LA. 2020. Contagious Yawning in African Elephants (Loxodonta africana): Responses to Other Elephants and Familiar Humans. Front. Vet. Sci. 7:252. https://doi.org/10.1111/eff.12212
Sanderson GP. 1907. Thirteen Years Among the Wild Beasts of India, 6th ed. John Grant, Edinburgh.
Shoshani J. 1997. It’s a nose! It’s a hand! It’s an elephant’s trunk! Natural History. 106
Shoshani J. 1998. Understanding Proboscidean evolution: a formidable task. Trends Ecol Evol. 13: 480-487.
Sikes SK. 1971. The Natural History of the African Elephant. The Trinity Press, Worcester and London.
Smet AF Byrne RW 2020. African elephants interpret a trunk gesture as a clue to direction of interest. Curr Biol. 2020 Aug 17;30(16):R926-R927. https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.06.070. PMID: 32810448
Spinage CA. 1994. Elephants. T & AD Poyser, London.
Stoeger-Horwath AS Stoeger S Schwammer HM Kratochvil H. 2007. Call repertoire of infant African elephants: first insights into the early vocal ontogeny. J. Acoust. Soc. Am 121:3922-3931.
Sukumar R. 1994. Elephant Days and Nights: Ten Years with the Indian Elephant. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Talbot, L. M., and D. R. M. Stewart. 1964. First wildlife census of the entire Serengeti-Mara region, East Africa. J. Wildlife Management 28:p815-827;tables;maps;refs.
Toshisada NT Kano Goodall J McGrew WC Nakamura M. 1999. Ethogram and Ethnography of Mahale Chimpanzees. Anthropological Science 107 (2): 141-188.
- Details
- Last Updated: 28 July 2021
- Hits: 16031